UNIVERSITY OF NEVADA BULLETIN 


VOL. VI 


OCTOBEK 1, 1912 


No. 4 


FIRES IN METALLIFEROUS MINES 


BY 

GEORGE J. YOUNG 

1 * 

Mackay School of Mines 


A Paper presented to the American Institute of Mining Engineers, 
and, by Permission of the Council, reprinted from the 
Bulletin of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, 
No. 70, October, 1912 

/ 


Published Quarterly by the University of Nevada 

Eeno, Nevada 

Entered in the Postoffiee at Reno, Nevada, as second-class matter under the Act of Congress, 

July 16, 1804 


Mom>gu4> h 






Note. —The University of Nevada publications are 
offered in exchange for certain periodicals and for the 
publications of learned societies and institutions, uni¬ 
versities, and libraries. For sample copies address the 
University Library, Reno, Nevada. 

James Edward Church, Jr., 

Carl Alfred Jacobson, 

Herbert Wynford Hill, 

Committee on Publications. 


SUBJECT TO REVISION. 


[TRANSACTIONS OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF MINING ENGINEERS.] 



Fires in Metalliferous Mines. 

BY GEORGE J. YOUNG,* RENO, NEV. 
(Cleveland Meeting, October, 1912.) 


I. General. 

The recurrence of mine-fires in Nevada during the past decade 
is not only a matter of interest, but also one of considerable con¬ 
cern to engineers and mine-managers. The more important 
fires may be enumerated as follows: 

Forman Shaft fire, Gold Hill, April 21,1903; shaft-house, 
machinery, and shaft destroyed; loss estimated at $50,000; 
cause unknown. 

Union Shaft fire, Virginia City, July 14, 1904; shaft-house, 
machinery, and shaft in part destroyed; loss estimated at $100,- 
000; cause of fire stated as the careless throwing of a match in 
the rope-house. 

Sutro Tunnel fire, Virginia City, Jan. 27, 1909; 700 ft. of 
tunnel-timbering destroyed, and direct damage of $10,000; 
cause “ probably electric wires.” 

Belcher Shaft fire, Gold Hill, Aug. 9, 1910; shaft-house de¬ 
stroyed, machinery ruined, and upper part of shaft damaged; 
damage, $25,000; no cause given. 

Belmont Mine fire, Tonopah, Feb. 23, 1911; fire started in 
winze; 17 men killed. 

Giroux Mine fire, Kimberly, Aug. 23, 1911; fire originated 
in shaft-station from unknown cause; 7 men killed, and $34,- 
521 damage caused. 

(Note 1 . — On June 11, 1912, some time after the present 
paper was written, a fire broke out in the pump-room on the 
2475 station of the Ward shaft, Virginia City. This fire was 
caused by the short-circuiting and exploding of the starting- 
switch on No. 5 pump. The oil in the switch was scattered 
about and set fire to the timbers and lagging of the pump- 
room. The pump-man in charge notified the surface, and the 

* Professor of Mining and Metallurgy, Mackay School of Mines. 

[ 1 ] 




1134 


FIRES IN METALLIFEROUS MINES. 


electric current was shut oil. A hose was then turned on the 
tire, but the dense smoke drove the attendant out. Inspection 
by the electrician and the shaft-foreman, equipped with oxygen- 
helmets, soon after, showed no flames or excessive heat, hut 
the continued expulsion of smoke indicated that some fire was 
present. The pump-chamber was then ordered flooded. No 
estimate of the damage was published and no fatalities occurred.) 

It is not the purpose of the present paper to discuss the above 
examples, but rather to use certain features of them to formulate 
general plans which might be of use in fire-prevention and fire¬ 
fighting. 

In the above list three fires are noteworthy in that they orig¬ 
inated in wooden shaft-houses and communicated with work¬ 
ings underground, resulting in considerable damage. The risk 
taken by closing in the mouth of a shaft with wooden buildings 
has long been recognized, and most of the Western mines have 
eliminated the shaft-house. In Virginia City, on account of the 
severe winters, the shaft-house has been retained, but, following 
the lesson given by these three fires, and the passage of a mining- 
regulation governing this feature of mine-construction, active 
steps have been taken to remove the risk. In almost every case 
where the shaft is used as a working-shaft wooden buildings 
about the shaft-mouth have been removed. 

Mine-fires may be considered in two groups: those which 
occur in the surface-plant and those which occur in the under¬ 
ground workings. Fires in mine surface-plants do not, as a rule, 
result in loss of life, and if proper fire-fighting facilities are pro¬ 
vided, the fire may be extinguished with but moderate loss. In 
Nevada considerable progress in the use of fire-proof construc¬ 
tion has taken place in recent years. The following steel and 
semi-fire-proof constructions may be noted: Goldfield Consoli¬ 
dated mill, Goldfield; New Belmont mill, Tonopali; Nevada 
Consolidated concentrating-mill, McGill; Nevada Reduction 
Works mill, Dayton; Nevada Hills mill, Fairview; Pittsburgh 
Silver Peak, Blair. 

Steel head-frames: Montana Tonopah, Tonopali; Tonopali 
of Nevada, Tonopah; Union shaft, Virginia City; Star Pointer 
shaft, Ely; Merger mines shaft, Goldfield; Giroux mine, 
Kimberly. 

The protection of the surface-plant from fire is recognized as 

[ 2 ] 


FIRES IN METALLIFEROUS MINES. 


1135 


a necessity, and most mining companies, where an extensive 
plant has been installed, provide facilities of some sort for fire¬ 
lighting. In the design of a surface-plant the question of fire- 
risk should receive considerable attention. The segregation of 
different parts of the plant, the separation of each unit by a 
sufficient distance to prevent the spread of a fire from one unit 

to another, and, finally, the use of materials which are either 

« 

fire-proof or of a slow-burning nature, are the main points which 
deserve consideration at the start. While it is true that the use 
of expensive materials and equipment is not warranted in the 
early stages of a mine’s development, it is often the case that 
after a mine has reached the producing stage the same types 
and materials of construction are used, and a surface-plant 
grows until it involves an amount of combustible material that 
in itself is a risk of some magnitude. The inevitable happens, 
a fire gets beyond control, and the destruction of the plant fol¬ 
lows; this occurs in spite of what were deemed adequate fire¬ 
fighting facilities. 

That a more general use of fire-proof and semi-fire-proof 
materials and construction in Western mines is merited goes 
without saying. That there is progress in this direction no one 
familiar with the more recent camps of the West can deny. It 
may not be out of place here to review the different types of 
building-construction used for surface-plants. They may be 
enumerated: 

1. Timber frame with board siding. 

2. Timber frame with corrugated-iron siding and roof. 

3. Steel frame with curtain-wall construction in which brick, 
ferroinclave, and cement plaster or reinforced concrete is used. 


4. Reinforced concrete. 

5. Brick Avails, steel frame, and corrugated-iron roofing. 

In Nevada the first tAvo methods of construction are common 
in the case of most mines and prospects. Of these, the second 
method is preferable on account of reducing the amount of 
combustible material. By whitewashing the timber-work both 
ignition and the spread of a fire may be retarded. The third 
method of construction is in use where large plants, more or 
less permanent in their nature, are erected. Examples have 
been cited above. The fourth method is quite common in 

coal-mine surface-plants in Westphalia, Germany, but is not 

[3] 


1136 


FIRES IN METALLIFEROUS MINES. 


often met with in the Western States of America. It merits 
consideration by the mining engineers of the United States. 
The use of reinforced concrete is uncommon, but some exam¬ 
ples are to be recorded in Nevada. The Midway mill, erected 
in the early days of Tonopah, was constructed with steel frame 
and corrugated-iron siding, and contained a reinforced-concrete 
ore-bin. In the Belmont mill and the Goldfield Consolidated 
mill, reinforced concrete has been used. In Nevada, brick 
construction, for obvious reasons, is not used for mine-plants, 
but in the case of electrical installations for power-plant and 
sub-stations this method of construction is common. 

The critical parts of a mine surface-plant are: the black- 
smith-shop, boiler- and power-plant, change-quarters, wood- 
shop, oil-storage, rope-house, and the structures about the shaft- 
mouth. With order, cleanliness, and a proper segregation of 
buildings, there is little chance for a fire, and yet carelessness on 
the part of any individual may be the cause of starting a tire, 
and consequently protection must be afforded by fire-plugs and 
liose-reels attached to the water-system. Usually the mine- 
plant is compactly arranged, and several plugs and hose-reels 
may serve all purposes. Small fire-extinguishers in each build¬ 
ing are also considered necessary. 

Underground mine-fires are serious, as in almost every case 
there is danger that fatalities may result, and the difficulty and 
danger of fighting such fires is great. In heavily-timbered 
mines where there is little or no water, the possibility of a small 
fire spreading throughout a mine is always present. Fortu¬ 
nately, dry mines usually do not have large areas of heavy 
ground, and heavily-timbered mines are often wet mines. 

The causes of fires in metalliferous mines are: 

The presence of combustible materials, such as timber, oils, 
waste. 

Carelessness with candles, lamps, and smoking. 

Blasting; remnants of smoldering fuse. 

Overheated bearings in machinery. 

Short-circuiting and overheating of electric wires. 

Spontaneous combustion. 

Rapid progress has been made in the development of 
methods of mining “ without timber,” and many methods in¬ 
volving a small proportion of timber, as compared with that 

[4] 


FIRES IN METALLIFEROUS MINES. 


1137 


required by the “ square set” system, are in use. Even though 
we may largely eliminate timbered stopes or, by filling, practi¬ 
cally eliminate the fire-risk from them, we still have the tim- 
bered drifts, stations, shafts, pump-stations, and winzes. We 
could almost completely eliminate the fire-risk from these by 
the use of steel and masonry, but this is practicable only in a 
few cases, and the mines of the West will undoubtedlv utilize 
timber for many years to come. Underground, a relatively 
large amount of combustible material must be contended with. 
The critical places are the shaft-mouth, the shaft, the stations, 
the drifts, and the winzes. The critical condition is where the 
timber is dry and comparatively little water occurs. Where 
water is encountered the fire-risk is lessened. Systematic elimi¬ 
nation of combustible material should be the first thought of 
the engineer. The proper protection from fire where combus¬ 
tible material must be used is the next consideration. 

Carelessness with candles may be eliminated by the intro¬ 
duction of electric lighting, and this method of lighting is 
common in Western mines of any size. Where candles are 
used, proper receptacles at stations and in stopes should be 
provided and their use insisted upon. The use of these will 
go a long way towards eliminating this cause. The setting of 
lighted candles upon timbers should be prohibited, and the 
removal of all candles from working-places when miners are 
leaving should be required. Lamps should be sparingly used, 
and where possible these should be filled and trimmed outside 
of the mine. Oil, and particularly oil required in illumination, 
should not be stored in the mine. Where oil-lamps are used 
by the miners, some form of solid illuminant should be used. 
Smoking can be controlled by mine-regulations, and in a 
heavily timbered mine, or in and about a wooden surface-plant, 
it should be prohibited. Where possible, the development of a 
stable, steady-working crew of men is an important factor in 
preventing accidents of any kind. Good foremanship is essen¬ 
tial to this end. 

Blasting as a cause of mine-fires is, no doubt, of minor im¬ 
portance. I know of no authentic case where the flame of a 
blast has been responsible for setting timbers on fire. In the 
case of the Homestakc fire a piece of smoldering fuse has 
been given as the cause. However this may be, it is necessary 

[5] 


1138 


FIRES IN METALLIFEROUS MINES. 


carefully to inspect timbered stopes after blasting. A fire origi¬ 
nating from any cause during the interim between blasting and 
the arrival of the next shift may thus be discovered before it 
has gained any considerable headway. 

Overheated bearings of machinery are an infrequent cause of 
fire. Underground ventilating- and pumping-machinery are 
the only forms of machinery which would be likely to cause 
trouble of this nature. Ring oil-bearings on motors and fans 
have, to a considerable extent, removed this source of danger, 
but frequent inspection of machinery should be made. Where 
fans are in use an inspection should be made at least twice a 
shift by the shift-boss. Ring oil-bearings should be frequently 
examined and kept filled, and at intervals the oil should be 
completely removed, and the bearings thoroughly cleaned. 
Machinery oil should be kept underground in quantities only 
sufficient for several shifts’ use. Machinery, where possible, 
should be placed in untimbered chambers or, where support of 
some kind is necessary, masonry, steel, or some fire-proof ma¬ 
terial should be used. At Virginia City the pump-rooms are 
heavily timbered and in themselves contain sufficient timber to 
sustain a considerable fire. The practice is to whitewash these 
timbers, and to keep such rooms thoroughly clean. While 
this reduces the fire-risk, still the presence of so much com¬ 
bustible material, and some of it of an oil-soaked nature, must 
be considered as a risk, and precautions should be taken to 
minimize it. (See note 1.) Such chambers can be readily 
provided with liose-plugs and reels. Where machinery of any 
size is in operation, the presence of attendants is usual, and is an 
additional safeguard. Oily waste and waste of any kind used 
in and about underground machinery should have metal con¬ 
tainers provided. 

Electric wires and apparatus may have been the cause of 
some fires, but where their installation has been carefully looked 
after, and they are in the hands of experienced men, it is sel¬ 
dom that a fire can be directly traced to their use. (See note 1.) 
The proper making of connections, the use of fuses, and auto¬ 
matic circuit-breakers on all apparatus will prevent excessive 
loads coming upon lines, electric motors, and'transformers. At 
Virginia City transformers are used at several places under¬ 
ground. These are placed in timbered stations, but this practice 

[ 6 ] 


FIRES IN METALLIFEROUS MINES. 


1139 


is open to question. Transformers should be placed in cham¬ 
bers free from timbers, and only material of a fire-proof nature 
should be permitted in the vicinity. In surface electrical work 
transformers are placed in fire-proof buildings, and out of con¬ 
tact with wood-work. Where transformers are in use under¬ 
ground, and in the vicinity of combustible material, buckets of 
sand should be placed where they can be used in extinguishing 
a fire. 1 

Spontaneous combustion is an infrequent occurrence, for the 
reason that underground conditions are seldom of a nature that 
would lead to this cause. Oily waste might, under extreme 
conditions, develop sufficient beat to ignite combustible ma¬ 
terial in its neighborhood, but it is seldom that this is present. 
Fires in mines containing heavily sulphureted ores are claimed 
by some writers to be due to the heat produced by great pres¬ 
sure. While this cause is not of great importance, a careful 
mine-manager will not overlook it. 

II. Fire-Prevention. 

The first line of defense in the prevention of fire is a proper 
set of mine-regulations covering the use of candles, lamps, oils, 
and other combustibles used underground; the second is the 
enforcement of these regulations. Without discipline mine- 
regulations are of little avail. The third line of defense is the 
practice of a fire-drill at frequent intervals. This practice 
should include drill in the use of fire-figliting apparatus, the 
training of a suitable fire-fighting squad, and the accustoming 
of the men to answer an emergency fire-call, so that a possible 
panic among the men on the alarm of fire may he avoided. 
The drill should be segregated into the drill of the fire-fighting 
squad at least once a month, and the drill of the whole mine- 
force in answering a fire-call at least once in three months. 
The fourth line of defense is the use of watchmen, whose busi¬ 
ness it should be to inspect the mine-workings after a shift has 
departed or at frequent intervals when the mine is shut down. 
These men serve to check up careless miners and prevent a 
small fire from spreading. 

Facilities for fighting incipient fires should be provided, and 

1 The Factor of Safety in Mine Electrical Installations, Technical Paper No. 19, 
U. S. Bureau of Mines (1912). 

[7] 





1140 


FIRES IN METALLIFEROUS MINES. 


placed at readily accessible points in the vicinity of the places 
where there is any considerable amount of combustible ma¬ 
terial. These places would be at shaft-stations, the sill-floors 
of timbered stopes, timbered winzes, and shaft-collars. Fire- 
extinguishers of a simple type would be the means provided. 
Water-pipe line should be laid to large timbered stopes, and 
liose-connections provided. Hose-reels should be placed at the 
critical points. The whole system should be standardized so 
that hose, couplings, etc., could be transferred, and used in any 
part of the mine. At the surface a reserve supply of hose 
should be provided. A monthly inspection of fire-fighting 
appliances should be provided for. 

Steel fire-doors, or wooden doors protected by tin sheets, set 
in concrete bulkheads, should be provided in cross-cuts and drifts 
at such points as would enable the spread of a fire starting in a 
stope to be checked. These would only be used in the event 
of a considerable fire. Such doors must be constructed so as to 
admit of opening from either side. In important tunnels of any 
great length and where timber is used several fire-doors might 
well be placed so as to divide the length into sections. In lieu of 
fire-doors a length of 100 ft. of the tunnel could be supported 
by masonry instead of timber, and this would localize a fire. 
In tunnel-fires fire-doors cannot always be reached, and the con¬ 
ditions may be such that temporary bulkheads cannot be con¬ 
structed. In such cases the masonry zone might prevent the 
fire from spreading through the entire length of the tunnel. In 
railroad tunnel-work, where, from financial conditions, timber 
must be used instead of masonry, masonry zones might well be 
used. The recent fire in the Chilcoot tunnel of the Western 
Pacific railroad is a case in point. A main working-shaft in a 
mine would admit of fire-localization in the same way. In place 
of masonry, steel tunnel-sets or shaft-sets could be used. While 
perhaps general rules for the placing of fire-stops and doors 
could be formulated, the conditions at each mine would have to 
be studied and the locations of these safeguards determined in 
such manner as to best meet those conditions. 

0. F. Ileizer has informed me that at the Seven Troughs Coa- 
lition mine, Seven Troughs, Nev., hinged wooden doors, pro¬ 
tected by -j^-in. steel sheets, are placed at the second set below 

the collar of the incline shaft (75° incline). These doors are 

[ 8 ] 


FIRES IN METALLIFEROUS MINES. 


1 141 


held by trickers controlled by a lever. Slots are cut so that 
interference with the hoisting-cable is avoided. Ten sacks of 
sand are stored close by the shaft. In the event of a fire on the 
surface the surface-men have instructions to throw the doors and 
place the sand over them. He informs me that this device 
worked very well on one occasion when a fire took place in the 
surface-plant. He also informs me that at the Hevada Hills 
mine, Fairview, two steel sheets are arranged at the mouth of 
the shaft so that they may he slid over the opening of the com¬ 
partment by throwing a lever. Ho special rollers are used, the 
sheets simply sliding on angle-irons. 

To one familiar with conditions in Western mines, it is a matter 
of surprise that advantage has not been taken of the automatic 
sprinkler, which is in use for the protection of warehouses, 
factories, public buildings, and the like. I know of no instances 
where this system is used underground, and only in a few in¬ 
stances, notably in Montana, have they been used in metallurgi¬ 
cal plants. The system as applied to buildings consists of a net¬ 
work of pipe-lines supplied by a pressure-tank. The pipes are 
so distributed as to admit of a sprinkler-head being placed in 
the center of each 10-ft. square. The sprinkler-heads are placed 
close to the ceiling. Each head is provided with an opening 
which is closed by a non-corrosive button. The button is held 
in place by a two-piece metal strip. The pieces of the strip are 
held in place by a soft solder which has a melting-point suffi¬ 
ciently low to be speedily reached by any fire in the vicinity. 
With the melting of the solder the pieces fall apart, the water- 
pressure forces the button out and the water spurts out against 
a spreader which throws the spray over a considerable area. A 
melting-point of 155° F. is used in the well-known Grinnell 
automatic sprinkler. The complete installation of an automatic 
sprinkler-system in a mine, while not necessarily impracticable, 
would in most cases be unnecessary. As has been mentioned, 
the critical places are the shafts and shaft-stations where the 
timbers are dry. Shaft and stations might well he protected by 
such a system. Timbered pump- or machinery-stations, on 
account of the value of their contents and their importance to 
the mine, could also be protected in this way. 

The installation of an automatic sprinkler system in a shaft is 
represented in Fig. 1. Two main points in the design of 

[ 9 ] 


SOt/from pressure tank at surface 


1142 


FIRES IN METALLIFEROUS MINES. 


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Fig. 1.—Automatic Sprinkler Installation for a Mine-Shaft. 

[ 10 ] 



























































































































































FIRES IN METALLIFEROUS MINES. 


1148 


such a system need consideration: one is the question of water- 
pressure ; the other is the use of protective coating upon the 
pipe so that scale and rust cannot form and clog the sprinkler- 
heads. In a deep shaft it is doubtful whether a continuous 
pipe-line could he employed without the use of extra-heavy 
pipe and fittings. By placing pressure-tanks at intervals of 
from 300 to 500 ft., ordinary or “ extra-strong ” pipe and 
fittings could be used. The intermediate tanks could be sup¬ 
plied from the pipe-line above by means of valves operated by 
float. The use of galvanized pipe and fittings would eliminate 
ordinary troubles of corrosion. 

In each compartment of the shaft, at intervals, sprinkler-heads, 
point downward, would be placed. In order to be out of the 
way these would be placed back against the lagging, but this 
position would not prevent their effective operation. A three- 
compartment shaft would be protected by making the intervals 
between sets of sprinklers 50 feet. 

The cost of such a system is nominal compared to the amount 
of damage a shaft-fire might cause. I have estimated the cost 
of pipes, sprinklers, and pressure-tanks (every 300 ft.) for a shaft 
1,000 ft. deep to approximate $500, or $0.50 per foot. In Fig. 
1 a 2-in. pipe is assumed as sufficient. In the cost of the system 
should be included a fire-tank on the surface. Shaft-stations 
would be protected by extensions of the pipe-system along the 
center-line of the station and the spacing of sprinklers every 
10 feet. 

The advantage of such a system is its automatic operation. A 
fire arising in an obscure portion of the shaft would be taken 
care of and extinguished before it could spread. The shaft, the 
main exit of a mine, could thus be always protected and main¬ 
tained in a workable condition. The possibility of saving life 
in the case of a fire would be greatly enhanced if shafts could 
without question be kept open. 

By extending the sprinkler-system along each drift for 50 or 
100 ft. a fire could be prevented from spreading to the shaft. 

An automatic system to be satisfactory should be inspected 
at frequent intervals and such a system, carefully installed, would 
not require an overall inspection more than once in three months. 

A telephone-system is an indispensable part of the equipment 
of a large mine. Not only is it necessary to install telephones 

[ii] 


1144 


FIRES IN METALLIFEROUS MINES. 


at stations, but important winzes and stopes also should be pro¬ 
vided with this appliance. The prompt warning of the men 
may be the means of preventing loss of life. This could be done 
by telephone or by the use of flash-signals where incandescent 
lamps are used. In Virginia City an “ all out of the mine” sig¬ 
nal is in use, and the electric lamps by a given number of flashes 
convey this signal. 

Fire-fighting helmets are now considered necessary at all 
large mines, and the training of men in their use should be a 
part of the fire-drill. Oxygen-helmets also should be provided 
for possible use in rescue-work as well as for the attack of 
smoldering tires which would produce such an amount of 
smoke as to prevent near approach. So well has the subject 
of the construction and use of the oxygen-helmet been dis¬ 
cussed that further comment is unnecessary here. 2 

All underground air-lines should be provided with connec¬ 
tions at stations, winzes, and stopes. These connections should 
be maintained in working-order at all times. In the Belmont 
fire a connection on the air-line at the 1100 station would have 
been the means of saving life. Where a water-pipe line is not 
in use in a working-shaft, connections should be made at the 
surface, so that the air-line could be used for purposes of bring¬ 
ing water to a fire. It is preferable to have two lines of pipe 
in a shaft, one for water and one for compressed air. 

III. Fighting Mine-Fires. 

The first essential in fighting a mine-fire is to get all of the 
men out of the mine. When this has been accomplished, a 
plan of action can be decided upon and carried out under com¬ 
petent direction. The usual steps may be stated as: bulk¬ 
heading, with the object of localizing the fire; laying of hose 
and the bringing of a water-supply to the scene of the fire. 

The fire-fighting squad necessarily works upon the incoming- 
air side of a fire unless equipped with smoke- or oxygen-helmets. 
By carrying air-lines along with hose-lines, fire-fighting squads 
have been enabled to approach close enough to a fire from the 
“ lee side ” to do effective work. It requires courage and 
daring on the part of the fire-squad to perform work of this 

2 The Use and Care of Mine-Rescue BreathingApparatus, Miners’ Circular No. 
4, U. S. Bureau of Mines (1911). 


[12] 






FIRES IN METALLIFEROUS MINES. 


1145 


kind, but instances are not uncommon where stubborn fights 
of this kind have been made. 

Where it is impossible to approach the fire close enough to 
fight it with water, two methods may be used : one is the bulk¬ 
heading of the fire on both sides and the closing of all winzes 
leading from the fire-zone; the other is to seal the mine and fill 
the workings with a gas which will prevent combustion. In 
the former method the fire is left to smother out, and this may 
take considerable time. The availability of the oxygen-helmet 
renders it possible to construct bulkheads where it would have 
been practically impossible without the use of this appliance. 
In fighting a fire by the second method, steam, sulphur dioxide, 
and carbon dioxide have been proposed as gases suitable for 
the purpose. Steam is the agent most used. If a supply of 
sulphur could be speedily obtained, it might be possible to use 
this reagent in temporary burners arranged so as to discharge 
the gases into the intake air-ways. Snelling 3 has given details 
of the method. Carbon dioxide is difficult to generate in suffi¬ 
cient quantity, and its use is almost out of the question save as it 
is generated by the fire itself. Where it is impossible to bulk¬ 
head a fire, and steam or other agent is out of the question, the 
flooding of the mine is the next expedient. If it is impracti¬ 
cable to flood the mine, the turning of water down the shafts 
after sealing all openings to the mine is then in order. 

The great danger in all mine-fires is the rapid filling up of 
the workings with smoke and poisonous gases (CO). To one 
who is familiar with fires this is the most striking thing. The 
comparatively restricted workings of a mine fill up in a very 
short time on account of the air-currents, which, while normally 
moving sluggishly, under the increased temperature rapidly 
acquire velocity. The presence of fire-doors at intervals may 
be the means of preventing workings from being completely 
flooded with irrespirable gases. If it were possible to stop all 
air-currents in a mine by doors suitably placed, the fire and the 
gas could be prevented from spreading outside of a restricted 


zone. 


As in the case of surface-fires, “ being prepared ” is the key 
to the situation. Mine-superintendents should carefully con¬ 
sider the possibilities of a fire, and make every preparation be- 


3 Trans., xxxix., 550 (1908), 
[ 13] 





1146 


FIRES IN METALLIFEROUS MINES. 


forehand, even to laying out a method of procedure for tires 
occurring in different parts of the mine. The drafting of a 
plan of action, the provision of apparatus and means for carry¬ 
ing out this plan, as well as the drilling and training of the 
men who are to carry the plan into execution, will go a long 
way towards preventing confusion, delay, and loss of control at 
the fire-signal. The provision for marking the passages lead¬ 
ing to shafts and exits should be carried out in all large mines. 
A careful study of the ventilating-currents in a mine and a con¬ 
sideration of the effect of a fire in changing their direction 
also form necessary parts of any fire-fighting plan. Ventilating- 
plans of the mine under varying conditions should be prepared, 
and tlieir study made a part of the drill by the fire-fighting 
squad. The effect of turning a stream of water down a shaft 
upon the air-currents deserves mention. In most cases a stream 
of water turned down an upcast shaft has the effect of reversing 
the air-current. In the Giroux fire the upcast shaft which was 
on fire was provided with a water-pipe, pierced with holes, 
close to the collar of the shaft. An attendant at the surface 
(without authorization) turned the water into this pipe, and thus 
reversed the direction of the air, causing the shaft to act as a 
down-cast. The Alpha shaft, which was the down-cast, became 
an upcast, and the miners escaping by this shaft were killed by 
the gases. 

IV. Legal Regulations. 

An examination of the mining-laws of the Western States 

O 

indicates no general tendency to comprehensively cover the 
subject of mine-fires. As an example, the regulations provided 
by the State Mine Inspector Law of Nevada may be cited. 
These regulations are grouped as - follows: 

Regulations Relating to Egress from Mines. 

“Section 19.—All shafts shall be equipped with ladders, and shafts more than 
200 feet in depth, inclined more than 45 degrees from the horizontal, equipped with 
hoisting machinery, shall be divided into at least two compartments ; one compart¬ 
ment to be divided off and set aside for a ladderway. The ladders shall be suffi¬ 
ciently strong for the purpose demanded, and landings shall be constructed not more 
than 30 feet apart ; said landings to be closely covered, except an opening large 
enough to permit the passage of a man. A landing shall be constructed in manway 
at all working levels.” 

“Section 20.—In every mine within this State, if more than 200 feet in depth* 
where a single shaft affords the only means of egress to persons employed under- 

[ M] 


FIRES IN METALLIFEROUS MINES. 


1147 


ground, and the ladderway compartment is covered by a non-fireproof building, it 
shall be the duty of the operator of said mine to cause said ladderway to be securely 
bulkheaded, or a trap door placed over same at a point at least 25 feet below the 
collar of the shaft, and if a trap door is used, it must be kept closed, or so arranged 
that it can be closed from a point outside of the building by the releasing of a rope, 
and below this bulkhead or trap door, if the shaft is situated on a side hill, a drift 
shall be driven to the surface, and if the shaft containing said ladderway mav be 
otherwise situated, this drift shall be driven on the level to a safe distance, but in 
no case less than 30 feet beyond the walls of the building covering the main shaft, 
and from such a point a raise shall be made to the surface. The said raise shall 
be equipped with a ladderway, and it, together with the drift connecting with the 
main shaft, shall be kept in good repair, and shall afford an easy exit in the event 
of fire.” 

“Section 21.—Whenever the exit or outlet from a mine is not in a direct or con¬ 
tinuous course, signboards, plainly marked, showing the direction to be taken, 
must be placed at each departure from the continuous course.” 

“ Section 28.—It shall be the duty of every operator to provide every tunnel or 
adit level, the mouth of which is covered by a house or building of any kind, with 
a door near the mouth of the same, that can be closed from the outside of the 
building by a pull wire or cable in the event of fire ; inside of door a raise shall be 
run to connect with surface, thus affording a means of exit in the case of fire.” 

Regulations Relating to Structures over Shaft-Mouths. 

“ Section 27.—It shall be unlawful for the operator of any mine within the State 
to erect any structure over the shaft of any mine, except head-frames necessary for 
hoisting from said shaft or outlet, and the hatch or door necessary for clos’ng such 
shaft or outlet ; provided, however , it shall be lawful to erect a house of non-inflam¬ 
mable and fire-proof material over such shaft or adit to protect the men working 
at such point. In the case of existing houses covering mouths of shafts or adits, it 
shall be the duty of the superintendent of the mine to cause the immediate removal 
of all inflammable material stored therein, arid it shall be the further duty of such 
superintendent to prohibit the storage of any inflammable material 30 feet from 
the exterior walls of any housing hereinafter built.” 

Regulations Relating to Inflammable Materials Used Underground 

and on Surface. 

“Section 16.—All timber removed shall, as soon as practicable, be taken from 
the mine, and shall not be piled up and permitted to decay underground.” 

“Section 22.—Use of gasoline underground is forbidden.” 

Regulations Relating to Fire-Fighting and Control of Mine-Fires. 

“Section 41.—At every mine in this State, employing forty or more men under¬ 
ground, there shall be kept on hand at all times, in good wmrking condition, at 
least two smoke helmets of a design to be approved by the State Mining Inspector, 
and which helmets shall at all times be subject to his inspection. For every addi¬ 
tional fifty men so employed an additional smoke helmet shall be provided.” 

These regulations are, at best, only fragmentary, but they 
indicate an effort to provide certain things that a mine-operator 

[ 15 ] 


1148 


FIRES IN METALLIFEROUS MINES. 


must do. Most mine-operators are willing to conform to any 
reasonable regulations, but until a more or less complete code 
is drawn up and incorporated in our State mining-laws, we 
must expect to find them somewhat backward in taking the 
initiative, except in those cases where either bitter experience 
or broad training has stimulated operators to take the subject 
up in detail. 


V. Proposed Regulations. 

With the object of inviting discussion, and of giving point 
to the generalizations in the foregoing, I have written the 
following regulations. The difficulty of providing for every 
emergency that may arise in a mine-fire, and of meeting the 
miscellaneous conditions that are present in Western metal- 
mines, is apparent, and in preparing these regulations I have 
endeavored to maintain a conservative rather than an extreme 
position. 

1. Egress from Mines. 

For mines deeper than 200 ft., and employing ten or more 
men underground, operators must observe the following: 

1. Two outlets must be maintained in good condition at all 
times during the operation of the mine. 

2. Where two or more shafts are in use, two of such shafts 
must be provided with ladder-ways in separate compartments, 
and such ladder-ways maintained in good condition during the 
operation of the mine. 

3. Where ladder-way shafts are inclined at a greater aimle 

v O o 

than 45°, landings closely boarded, and with openings just 
sufficient to allow the passage of a man, must be provided at 
intervals not greater than 30 feet. 

4. In mines operated through three or more working-shafts, 
where each shaft is provided with hoisting-machinery, a ladder- 
way may be provided in but one shaft. 

5. Between levels at least one winze must be provided with 
a ladder-way, and the same maintained in proper condition 
where the level is in use for extraction of ore, or ventilation. 

6. On each level the direction to shafts and winzes, used as 
exits in cases of emergency, must be clearly indicated by sign¬ 
boards. 


[16] 


FIRES IN METALLIFEROUS MINES. 


1149 


2. Mine Surface-Structures. 

1. None but fire-proof buildings are to be permitted over 
shaft or tunnel-mouth. 

2. Where shaft-mouths are open, wooden head-frames and 
bins may be permitted. 

3. Non-fire-proof buildings must not be placed nearer than 
50 ft. to any shaft-mouth or tunnel-entrance. 

4. Mine-plant buildings of non-fire-proof construction must 
be separated from each other by a space not less than 30 ft. wide. 

5. In a mine surface-plant where non-fire-proof construction 
is employed, hoisting-machinery, boiler-plant, blacksmith- and 
machine-shop, timber-framing shop, change-house, and storage 
•of supplies must be placed in separate buildings separated by 
a fire-space not less than 30 ft. wide. 

3. Inflammable Materials on Surface and Underground. 

1. Where fire-proof shaft- and tunnel-houses are in use, tim¬ 
ber or other inflammable material in excess of sufficient for one 
shift’s use must not be stored in such buildings. 

2. Timber-yard or timber-storage sheds must be placed not 
less than 75 ft. from any mine-building. 

3. Lubricating-oils and inflammable fluids must be stored in 
fire-proof buildings separated by a distance of not less than 
75 ft. from other mine-buildings. 

4. Metal containers must be provided for the storage of all 
waste used in wiping and cleaning machinery. They are to be 
provided for each machinery-room in the surface-plant, and for 
each group of machines underground. 

5. Lubricating- and illuminating-oils in excess of a 24-hr. 
supply must not be stored underground or in surface-buildings 
other than the oil-storage building. 

o o 

6. Gasoline and substances of like nature are not to be used 
underground. 

o 

7. Timber in excess of a 24-hr. supply is not to be stored 
underground. 

CO 

8. Powder-drifts which are used for the temporary storage 
and handling of powder underground, must be cleared of all 
paper, empty boxes and rubbish, at least once each 24 hours. 

9. Where timber is framed at one or more points in a mine, 
these places must be cleared of chips and rubbish, at least 
once each 24 hours. 


[17] 


1150 


FIRES IN METALLIFEROUS MINES. 


4. Surface and Underground Regulations. 

1. Where mine surface-structures are of non-fire-proof con¬ 
struction a sufficient water-supply must be provided for fire¬ 
fighting purposes. One fire-plug and hose-reel must he placed 
not less than 25 ft. from the shaft-mouth, and such other fire¬ 
plugs placed as, in the judgment of the State mine-inspector 
and mine-superintendent, shall he sufficient to quench any 
ordinary fire. 

2. At shaft-house, in timber-framing building, power-plant, 
change-room, and such other parts of the surface-plant as the 
mine-inspector may decide, at least two fire-extinguishers of 
an approved type must he placed and maintained in proper 
working-order. They must he placed in a conspicuous and 
convenient place. 

3. Smoking shall be prohibited in non-fire-proof surface- 
plants. 

4. Where more than a nominal number of lamps using illu¬ 
minating-oils are in use a separate lamp-house shall be provided 
and all filling, cleaning, and trimming done in this building. 

5. Where water-pipes are not installed in shaft, connections 
must he provided with the surface water-system so that the 
compressed-air pipes may be used to bring water underground 
in the case of a fire. 

6. Connections must he made with air-pipes at each station, 
whether the same is in active use or not. These connections 
must be such that air can he turned into the station. 

7. Where candle illumination is used underground metal 
sconces must he provided at all timbered stations and stopes and 
miners required to use same. 

8. The placing of lighted candles on timbers without proper 
protection is prohibited. 

9. Smoking is prohibited in timbered mines. 

10. At all timbered stations which are in active use and where 
water-supply and hose-lines are not provided, at least two fire- 
extinguishers of approved type shall be placed and maintained 
in working condition. 

11. Where electric illumination or power is used underground 
or in surface-plant, line-installation and protection must be in 
accordance with the Electric Code of the National Board of Fire 
Underwriters. 


[18] 


FIRES IN METALLIFEROUS MINES. 


1151 


12. Transformers, where used underground, must be placed 
in fire-proof chambers and, at each bank of transformers, sand¬ 
boxes must be placed and a supply of sand maintained. 

13. In heavily-timbered stopes fire-inspection must be pro¬ 
vided after each shift leaves and before the new shift comes on. 

14. Air-tight doors shall be constructed in each level, where 
practicable, between upcast and down-cast shafts. Such doors 
should be preferably of fire-proof construction. 

5. Regulations for Fire-Fighting and Control of Mine-Fires. 

1. The mine-foreman, under the direction of the mine-super¬ 
intendent, shall have charge of all fire-fighting operations. 

2. The mine-foreman shall designate certain assistants to con¬ 
stitute a fire-fighting squad, and assign duties to such assistants. 
The names of such assistants shall he posted at shaft-mouths as 
the fire-fighting squad. 

3. The mine-foreman shall conduct a general fire-drill at least 
once each three months and at that time examine, test, and re¬ 
port to the superintendent the condition of all fire-fighting appa¬ 
ratus, exits, and ladder-ways. This report shall be in writing, 
and shall receive the signature of the State mine-inspector on 
his next inspection-visit after the fire-drill. 

4. In mines employing 50 men, at least two smoke-helmets 
of an approved type shall be maintained in proper working-con 
dition at all times. For each 30 men in addition an additional 
smoke-helmet shall be installed and maintained in working-con¬ 
dition. The foreman shall instruct the fire-fighting squad in 
their use. 

5. In mines employing 200 or more men underground, at least, 
two oxygen-helmets shall be maintained in proper working-con¬ 
dition. The foreman shall designate certain men for instruction 
and practice in the use of such helmets. 

5a. In mines employing 200 or more men underground, a 
“pulmoter” in proper working-condition must be provided. 
The foreman shall instruct the fire-fighting squad in its use. 

6. A general signal to indicate a surface-fire and one for an 
underground fire shall he designated. 

7. Where practicable, an “ all out of the mine ” signal shall 
be designated and used in emergency. This signal must be used 
only by persons to be designated by the superintendent. 

[19] 


1152 


FIRES IN METALLIFEROUS MINES. 


8. Detailed instructions to surface and underground men as 
to what to do in the case of fire are to be posted at shaft-mouth 
and underground stations. 

o 

VI. Conclusion. 

This paper is written in the hope that some discussion will 
result. The use of fire-proof construction, the comparative cost 
of such construction, methods of preventing the spread of, and of 
fighting, mine-fires, and mine-fire regulations are subjects upon 
which many of the members of the Institute can no doubt con¬ 
tribute much of importance. 







